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COX理论的形成

20世纪70年代初发现,非甾体类抗炎药(NSAIDs)是通过抑制促使前列腺素(PG)生成的环氧合酶(COX)的途径,发挥抗炎作用的,但也由此引出了不良反应。

20世纪90年代初发现,COX有2种同工酶,即COX-1和COX-2。起初普遍认为,COX-1是生理性酶,COX-2是诱导酶或病理性酶。在此基础上,人们推测,NSAIDs所引起的胃肠反应与抑制COX-1有关,而其抗炎止痛作用则因抑制COX-2所致;并认为以往的NSAIDs因无选择地对2种COX都抑制,故在临床上疗效和不良反应并存。从上述发现到用之解释NSAIDs引起的不良反应之谜,这一新概念当时受到广泛关注,进而促进研究者将以往NSAIDs对2种酶的抑制作用进行了测定,并以COX-2∶COX-1的IC50比值大小来作为判断某NSAIDs引起胃肠反应的指标,比值越大提示对COX-1的选择性越大,比值越小提示对COX-2的选择性越大。如用纯化人酶法测定的吲哚美辛、双氯芬酸、布洛芬和萘丁美酮的IC50比值分别为74、7.5、3.13和1.46。

2种同工酶的发现,在90年代初期产生的最大影响莫过于促使人们研制对COX-1无抑制或极少抑制、而对COX-2有高度抑制作用的选择性COX-2抑制剂现称特异性COX-2抑制剂 ,以试图达到既抗炎又减少胃肠不良反应的目的。

特异性COX-2抑制剂引出的临床新问题

自1999年以来,第一代特异性COX-2抑制剂即昔布类药物——塞来昔布和罗非昔布先后在国外和我国上市。据称,该类新药对COX-2的抑制作用比对COX-1的抑制作用大100倍,并在治疗浓度下不抑制COX-1。一系列研究提示,2种昔布类药物对类风湿性关节炎(RA)和骨关节炎(OA)患者的疗效及总的副作用发生率与对照药相当,但溃疡检出率则明显低于各自的对照药,差异有显著性。

随着特异性COX-2抑制剂在临床应用时间的推移,有关该类药物引起心血管、肾及过敏等的不良反应已引起人们的关注。那么如何解释特异性COX-2抑制剂引发的临床新问题呢?

COX理论的进展

1. COX与炎症:曾认为COX-1不直接参与炎症,现已证明:,COX-1不仅参与炎症并有加重炎症的作用,而COX-2似乎主要参与早期炎症,而在慢性炎症阶段反而有抗炎作用。

2. COX与胃肠:动物实验表明,敲除COX-1基因鼠未出现胃肠生理和病理异常。敲除COX-2基因鼠用吲哚美辛可诱发溃疡,出现腹膜炎及对实验性结肠炎的易感性增加。COX-2可增强胃的过继性细胞保护作用,参与调节胃上皮细胞增生及增强黏膜对应激性损伤的抵抗力。

3.COX与肾:研究表明,在新生鼠的肾单位和膀胱有高水平COX-2,并参与肾的发育。敲除COX-1基因的新生鼠肾脏无异常,而敲除COX-2基因的新生鼠和成年鼠肾明显发育不良、功能性肾单位减少及有严重肾病变,给犬静脉注射特异性COX-2抑制剂可引起明显的剂量相关的尿量和尿钠排泄减少,肾血流及肾小球滤过率下降。

4.COX与心血管:在梗死心肌的内皮细胞、肌细胞和扩张性心肌病纤维化的心肌细胞中均发现COX-2表达增加。有人认为,内皮细胞诱导的COX-2增加,可能是一种防护血管损伤的补偿机制,对心脏可能有保护作用。COX—1是表达在血小板的惟一的同工酶。特异性COX-2抑制剂对COX-1无影响,故不抑制血小板功能,但可阻断全身性PGI2的产生,从而打破体内促血栓和抗血栓间的平衡,进而产生促血栓形成的倾向。

Crofford将COX的研究进展归纳为:COX-1作为生理性酶具有保护胃黏膜、激活血小板及维持肾功能的作用,并参与巨噬细胞分化。而COX-2除在诱导下作为病理性酶引起炎症、疼痛、发热和异常调节外,还参与组织修复,维持生殖系统、脑、肾、心、肺等器官的生理功能以及肾发育;另外,该酶对慢性炎症有抗炎作用。可见,2种同工酶具有比原先想像的更广泛的生理和病理生理作用。

由于特异性COX-2抑制剂不抑制COX-1,溃疡发生率比对照药虽然减少,但总的副作用并未减少;因其未能抑制COX-1的致炎和促血小板聚集作用,故疗效未超过对照药,并有潜在的致血栓倾向。同样,因特异性COX-2抑制剂对COX-2高度抑制,虽取得抗炎效果,但疗效未超过对照药,并出现了新的心血管及肾等方面的副作用。究其原因可能是由于COX-2过分受抑制,不仅抵消了其抗炎作用,还影响了其维持正常生理功能的作用。

用COX分类法评价当今的NSAIDs

Lipsky等主张,根据临床对COX-1和COX-2的选择性不同,将COX抑制剂分为4类:

(1)COX-1特异性抑制剂:只针对COX-1,对COX-2无作用,现公认小剂量阿司匹林属此类。

(2)COX非特异性抑制剂:是指对COX-1和COX-2的抑制无差异,吲哚美辛、布洛芬、萘普生及双氯酚酸属此类。

(3)COX-2倾向性抑制剂:又称选择性抑制剂,系指在有效治疗剂量时,对COX-2的抑制作用明显大于COX-1。用人全血法测定这类药物对COX-2的选择性比对COX-1大20倍以内。萘丁美酮、美洛昔康和依托度酸属此类。

(4)COX-2特异性抑制剂:是指即使在最大治疗剂量时也不会对COX-1抑制。体外实验显示,对COX-2的抑制作用比对COX-1大100倍以上。塞来昔布和罗非昔布属此类。

倾向性COX-2抑制剂因对COX-2的抑制作用明显强于COX-1,使其既能抑制2种同工酶的致炎作用,又不过分影响两种酶的生理功能,从理论上看,比特异性COX-2抑制剂更为合理。临床观察也证实,萘丁美酮、美洛昔康和依托度酸等,对RA和OA等疾病的疗效与双氯芬酸、炎痛昔康及吲哚美辛等相当,但不良反应却明显低于后一类。

萘丁美酮(瑞力芬)的活性代谢产物6-MNA易于扩散至滑膜、滑液和肌腱组织中,其治疗浓度足以抑制致炎的前列腺素。瑞力芬独特的药理学特点使它对患者胃黏膜具有三重保护作用:它的非酸性和疏水性避免了胃黏膜的离子捕捉,又因是无活性的前体药物,因而对胃的前列腺素合成无直接影响。其次,6-MNA不会随肠肝循环反流至胃,从而避免与胃再接触造成间接损伤。该药在到达肾脏之前,已完成去甲基化,再次形成无活性成分,从肾脏排泄,故对肾脏前列腺素的合成亦无影响。此外不影响出凝血指标,利于手术。每日服药1次,长期耐受性好。临床适用于各种炎性关节炎、各种软组织风湿症、运动性软组织损伤、下腰痛、牙痛、痛经,老年人适于选用。

国外一项研究显示,8753例风湿病(包括880例RA、6185例OA、1005例非关节风湿性综合征和683例软组织损伤)患者每日接受瑞力芬0.5-2g。治疗6周结果显示,患者静息痛、压痛、活动痛、关节活动症状均有显著改善(见图)。国内一项多中心、对RA为期12周的瑞力芬(43例)和双氯芬酸(扶他林,37例)对比观察显示,瑞力芬组患者关节疼痛个数、压痛指数、肿胀个数、晨僵和握力等临床指标均显著改善。其中5项指标的改善率高于双氯芬酸。而且,瑞力芬组患者血沉和C反应蛋白水平也得到显著改善(P<0.05)。内镜观察显示,在整个疗程,瑞力芬组无1例患者因为服药而出现溃疡。

美国一项研究结果显示,44935例患者服用萘丁美酮后引发的穿孔、溃疡和出血仅占0.02%~0.9%。Huang等对49501例患者的荟萃分析指出,对照NSAIDs所致的穿孔、溃疡和出血是萘丁美酮的10~36倍。另一项为期12周的345例老年OA患者的双盲对照研究表明,双氯芬酸组患者胃肠反应发生率明显高于萘丁美酮组,前组中有12例患者出现溃疡和出血,而后组无1例发生。一项对1243例老年患者进行的多中心观察研究表明,萘丁美酮(1.0~2.0)g/日,对患者尿素氮和肌酐无明显影响。一项手术前后萘丁美酮和安慰剂组出凝血参数的对照研究表明,萘丁美酮组手术前后出凝血时间、凝血酶原时间和部分凝血酶原时间与安慰剂组无显著差异。可见,胃和肾安全性好是萘丁美酮尤为突出的优点。

另一报告显示,炎痛昔康、双氯芬酸、美洛昔康、塞来昔布及罗非昔布所致穿孔、溃疡和出血的发生率分别为3.7%、1.1%、0.91%、1.05%和0.78%。可见美洛昔康的胃肠安全性与2种特异性COX-2抑制剂相当。一项对8334例RA和OA患者进行为期4周至1年的观察研究显示,依托度酸的疗效与双氯芬酸等相当,确诊并发溃疡者仅5例0.06% 。

总之,目前对胃肠道安全性最高的药物除昔布类还有上述几种选择性COX-2抑制剂,且后者对血管和肾等的不良反应也很少,对不同人群和老年人的安全谱都很大。

近来又见塞来昔布和罗非昔布引起200例肾衰的报告及塞来昔布引起磺胺样过敏反应的报告。因此,人们不能将特异性COX-2抑制剂的临床安全性过分夸大。国外认为,该类药物对有慢性胃病、溃疡病史及易由其他抗炎药引发胃肠症状者,可作为优先选择,但同样不适于活动性溃疡及因其他抗炎药曾并发肾损害、高血压、水肿及心脏等不良反应者。

由此可见,与COX非选择性和特异性COX-2抑制剂相比,倾向性COX-2抑制剂既兼有前两者之长,又少有前两者之短,故在当前临床上具有优先选择的价值。

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Hepatology. 2005 Mar;41(3):460-9

Prostaglandins are hepatoprotective molecules generated in liver regeneration by the rapid induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are other hepatoprotective mediators upregulated at 24 hours after partial hepatectomy. The interactions among these molecules during liver regeneration have not yet been defined. Here we show that rats subjected to partial hepatectomy treated with NS-398, a specific COX-2 inhibitor, exhibited cell cycle arrest, increased hepatocyte apoptosis, persistent extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 activation, and increased interleukin-6 production. These changes were associated with downregulation of CT-1 and COX-1 and altered pattern of VEGF expression. Administration of an adenovirus encoding CT-1 to NS-398-treated rats restituted normal levels of COX-1, prostaglandins, and VEGF in the liver after partial hepatectomy and restored normal liver regeneration. Furthermore, the stimulation of isolated rat hepatocytes with CT-1 increased COX-1, COX-2, and VEGF messenger RNAs and prostaglandin synthesis. Conversely, the addition of prostaglandin E1 to the culture increased CT-1 and VEGF production. In conclusion, COX-2 activation and production of prostaglandins soon after partial hepatectomy are essential requirements for hepatocyte proliferation and for the correct induction of both CT-1 and VEGF. CT-1 can restore liver regeneration after COX-2 inhibition by increasing VEGF, COX-1 expression, and prostaglandin synthesis

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Dig Dis Sci. 2005 Oct;50 Suppl 1:S16-23.

COX-1 and COX-2 are two cyclooxygenase enzymes responsible for prostanoid production. COX-2 is expressed in inflammatory cells and fibroblasts of the gastric mucosa, and through the production of various growth factors including hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), plays a key role in the tissue repair process. Aspirin induces and acetylates COX-2 to produce 15-(R)-epi-lipoxinA4, an anti-inflammatory mediator thought to protect the gastric mucosa against aspirin-induced injury. Recently, three different PGE synthases have been identified, that convert COX-2 metabolites into PGE2. mPGE synthase (mPGES)-1 has been shown to be inducible, and to colocalize with COX-2 in fibroblasts and macrophages infiltrating the gastric ulcer bed. cPGES and mPGES-2 have been found expressed in normal gastric mucosa, with no change in expression levels seen in gastritis or gastric ulcer tissue. Finally, this review discusses the role of these enzymes in the pathophysiology of the gastric mucosa, as well as the biologcal significance of their inhibition

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Kidney Int. 2007 Nov 21

To study the protective effect of prostacyclin (PGI2) we increased PGI2 production by infected NRK-52E cells with an adenovirus carrying cyclooxygenase-1 and prostacyclin synthase. PGI2 overexpression protected these cells from gentamicin-induced apoptosis by reducing cleaved caspase-3 and caspase-9, cytochrome c, and decreasing generation of reactive oxygen species. Expression of the nuclear receptor of PGI2, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARalpha), was reduced during gentamicin treatment of the cells, while its overexpression significantly inhibited gentamicin-induced apoptosis and the amount of cleaved caspase-3. Transformation with PPARalpha short interfering RNA abolished the protective effect of PGI2 overproduction in gentamicin-treated cells. The PPARalpha activator docosahexaenoic acid given to gentamicin-treated mice significantly reduced the number of apoptotic cells in renal cortex, but this protective effect was not seen in PPARalpha knockout mice. Our study suggests that increased endogenous PGI2 production protects renal tubular cells from gentamicin-induced apoptosis through a PPARalpha-signaling pathway.Kidney International advance online publication, 21 November 2007; doi:10.1038/sj.ki.5002704.

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Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2008 Jan 25;365(4):698-703. Epub 2007 Nov 26.Click here to read

Janssen A, Schiffmann S, Birod K, Maier TJ, Wobst I, Geisslinger G, Grösch S.

pharmazentrum frankfurt/ZAFES, Institut für Klinische Pharmakologie, Klinikum der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Theodor Stern Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt/Main, Germany.

S-ibuprofen which inhibits the cyclooxygenase-1/-2 and R-ibuprofen which shows no COX-inhibition at therapeutic concentrations have anti-carcinogenic effects in human colon cancer cells; however, the molecular mechanisms for these effects are still unknown. Using HCT-116 colon carcinoma cell lines, expressing either the wild-type form of p53 (HCT-116 p53(wt)) or being p(HCT-116 p53(-/-)), we demonstrated that both induction of a cell cycle block and apoptosis after S- and R-ibuprofen treatment is in part dependent on p53. Also in the in vivo nude mice model HCT-116 p53(-/-) xenografts were less sensitive for S- and R-ibuprofen treatment than HCT-116 p53(wt) cells. Furthermore, results indicate that induction of apoptosis in HCT-116 p53(wt) cells after ibuprofen treatment is in part dependent on a signalling pathway including the neutrophin receptor p75(NTR), p53 and Bax.

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Eur J Cancer Prev 2007 Dec;16(6):505-10.

Sulforaphane is an antioxidant and a potent stimulator of natural detoxifying enzyme and associated with lowered risk of cancer that is associated with the consumption of cruciferous vegetables. The chemopreventive effects of SFN was investigated using the MCF-7 human breast cancer cells and the M13SV1-immortalized human breast luminal epithelial cells. Sulforaphane reduced proliferation in MCF-7 cells and inhibited cyclooxygenase-2 expression in M13SV1 cells treated with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). The chemopreventive effects of sulforaphane were associated with p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase suggest its important role in cell survival/apoptosis regulation and stabilization of cyclooxygenase-2. Sulforaphane upregulates p38 in MCF-7 cells and prevented TPA-reduced phosphorylation of p38 in M13SV1 cells, but activated caspase-7 associated with apoptosis in MCF-7 cells. These results suggest that sulforaphane may be an alternative candidate for targeted prevention of ER-positive and cyclooxygenase-2-induced phenotypes and breast cancer.

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clipped from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
1: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2007 Dec 18 [Epub ahead of print]

The effects of COX-2 expression in prostate cancer cells: modulation of response to cytotoxic agents.

LNCaPCOX-2 cells expressed increased levels of survivin and Bcl-2 with enhanced activation of AKT
Celecoxib treatment resulted in highly significant increases in the mRNA expression of the smooth muscle component desmin, the detoxification enzyme GSTpi and Nonsteroidal-Anti-inflammatory response gene NAG-1 in the LNCaPCOX-2 cell line when compared with LNCaPneo cells
Our findings indicate both COX-2 dependent and independent mechanisms attributable to celecoxib and support its utility in the management of prostate cance
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clipped from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
1: Int J Mol Med. 2006 Feb;17(2):245-52.

The selective cyclooxygenase-1 inhibitor SC-560 suppresses cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Indeed, we have recently observed that the dual COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor indomethacin induces apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines more effectively than the selective COX-2 inhibitors, possibly implicating COX-1 in HCC.
SC-560 showed a dose- and time-dependent inhibitory effect on HCC cell growth. The combination of the COX-1 inhibitor with nimesulide and CAY10404, two selective COX-2 inhibitors, resulted in additive effects on cell growth inhibition.
anti-apoptotic proteins survivin and XIAP and activated caspase-3 and -7 in a dose- and time-dependent fashion
In conclusion, we report for the first time that the selective COX-1 inhibitor SC-560 exhibits anti-tumor and apoptotic effects in human HCC cells
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clipped from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
1: Am J Hematol. 2006 Apr;81(4):242-55.

Antitumor effects of celecoxib on K562 leukemia cells are mediated by cell-cycle arrest, caspase-3 activation, and downregulation of Cox-2 expression and are synergistic with hydroxyurea or imatinib.

Cox-2 expression in K562 cells was stimulated by IL-1beta, a specific inducing agent of Cox-2 expression
Cox-2 expression was downregulated at higher doses of celecoxib (80-160 microM)
suggesting a Cox-2-dependent mechanism was involved in the drug’s effects of growth inhibition and induction of apoptosis. In addition, a synergistic effect was observed when cells were exposed to low-dose celecoxib (40 microM) and hydroxyurea (10 mM) or a combination of celecoxib (40 microM) and imatinib (0.2 microM). These findings provide the basis for uncovering the mechanism of celecoxib’s antitumor effects and developing a new therapeutic strategy for treating CML
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clipped from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
1: Hepatology. 2002 Oct;36(4 Pt 1):885-94.

Proapoptotic and antiproliferative potential of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors in human liver tumor cells.

nonselective inhibitor sulindac sulfide
COX-2 selective inhibitors SC-58635 and meloxicam
Apoptosis after COX-2 inhibition with SC-58635 (50 micromol/L) was independent of BCL-2, BAX, and the phosphorylation status of AKT/PKB and BAD, but correlated with activation of caspase-9, caspase-3, and caspase-6. In conclusion, selective inhibition of COX-2 leads to a marked growth inhibition of human liver tumor cells, based on the induction of apoptosis and inhibition of proliferation and, thus, may offer therapeutic and preventive potential in human hepatocarcinogenesis.
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